HOW  TO  TEACH 


NATURAL  SCIENCE 


WM.  T.  HARRIS 


g 

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03 


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IH 
rl 


Chares  Edwar 
1867-1938 


Professor  of  Edueatio] 
University  of  Calif orn 


HOW  TO  TEACH 

NATURAL  SCIENCE 


IN 


PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


WM.   T.   HARRIS,  LL.  D. 

COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION 
Second.    Edition,    from    ]N"e-w    3?lates 


SYRACUSE,    N.    Y. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,   PUBLISHER 
1895 


Copyright,  1895,  toy  C.  W.  BARDEEN 


u 


* 


4S*+ 


NOTE  BY  THE  PUBLISHER 

This  plan  of  study  was  first  issued  by  Dr.  Harris 
in  1871.  It  appeared  in  his  Report  for  that  year 
(pp.  173-181,  and  xlviii-lvii),  and  also  as  a  Sylla- 
bus of  Lessons  for  the  teachers,  document  No.  34. 
It  appeared  next  in  the  annual  Report  for  1877  of 
Superintendent  Philbrick,  of  Boston  (pp.  94-102), 
where  he  speaks  of  this  syllabus  as  the  characteris- 
tic of  the  St.  Louis  course,  "  so  interesting  and  im- 
portant that  I  quote  it  in  full."  It  was  again 
reprinted  in  the  St.  Louis  report  for  1879,  and 
finally  has  been  made  the  basis  of  the  report  of  the 
Committee  on  Physics-Teaching,  presented  at  the 
meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
Chicago,  1887. 

It  is  by  request  of  Charles  K.  Wead,  chairman 
of  this  Committee,  that  the  syllabus  is  now  reprinted 
in  form  accessible  to  all ;  and  since  it  has  been 
accepted  for  sixteen  years  as  the  best  presentation 
of  the  subject,  it  unquestionably  belongs  among 
"  School-Room  Classics  ". 

<y) 

M237246 


VI  NATURAL   SCIENCE  IX   PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

It  is  published  by  consent  of  Dr.  Harris,  and  in 
form  according  with  his  suggestions. 
SYRACUSE,  June,  1887. 


NOTE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 
New  plates  being  required,  a  larger  and  more 
oj>en  page  has  been  given  to  this  little  manual, 
which  has  proved   of  such   service  all   over  the 
country. 

SYRACUSE,  Nov.  10,  1894. 


CONTENTS 

REPORT  TO  THE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 9 

Natural  science  as  an  instrument  of  modern 

civilization 10 

The  compass  of  natural  science 11 

The  order  of  instruction 12 

Method  of  teaching 13 

SPECIAL  REPORT  TO  THE  BOARD 16 

I.  Not  everything  can  be  taught 16 

II.  The  school  must  furnish  theoretical  in- 
sight  IT 

III.  Reading,  arithmetic,  geography 18 

IV.  Grammar,  history 18 

V.  Sciences,  mathematics,  other  languages.. 19 

VI.  Higher  studies  in  the  elementary  course.. 20 

VII.  Social  and  natural  sciences 20 

VIII.  Elements  of  the  natural  sciences  in  ele- 
mentary schools 21 

IX.  Outlines  and  reference  books 22 

X.  A  course  of  study 23,28-35 

XL  Oral  vs.  text-book  method 23 

XII.  Advantages  of  the  oral  method 24 

(vii) 


NATURAL    SCIENCE   IN    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

XIII.  Advantages  of  the  text-book  method 24 

XIV.  Points  to  be  observed  in  recitation 24 

XV.  The  teacher  should  not  use  the  text-book 

in  recitation 26 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 28 

First  year,  plants 28 

Second  year,  animals 28 

Third  year,  elements  of  physical  nature 29 

Fourth  year,  botany 30 

Fifth  year,  zoology,  physiology  and  hygiene.... 31 

Sixth  year,  physical  geography 33 

Seventh  year,  physics. 34 

ON  THE  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 36 

Method  rather  than  quantity 37 

The  number  of  topics 37 

General  plan  of  the  course 38 

1.  The  subjects ? 38 

2.  Recurrence  of  topics 38 

3.  Appearance  of  the  sciences  in  outline 39 

4.  Illustrative  objects  must  be  typical 39 

5.  The  perceptive  powers  developed 39 

6.  How  to  conduct  a  lesson. 40 

7.  How  to  use  reference  books 41 

8.  Incidental  teaching 43 

9.  The  study  of  Man  to  be  parallel 44 


How  to  Teach  Natural  Science  in  Public  Schools 


In  former  reports  I  have  discussed  at  length  the 
significance  of  the  common  branches  of  study  and 
have  endeavored  to  show  that  even  the  rudimentsy 
such  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetic  and  geography, 
are  of  inestimable  importance.  Their  acquirement 
works  a  more  potent  change  in  the  individual  than 
any  subsequent  step  in  his  culture.  That  these 
rudiments  can  almost  be  said  to  add  faculties  to 
the  child's  mind  ;  that  they  are  so  general — so  wide 
reaching  in  their  application — as  to  lie  at  the  basis 
of  further  progress  in  education  ;  that  their  claims 
surpass  in  every  respect  those  of  other  special 
branches  that  have  been  urged  for  admission  to  the 
district  school  course  of  study  on  the  ground  that 
they  are  "  more  practical "  :  these  and  other  posi- 
tions have  been  stated  and  supported  by  argument. 
It  remains  in  this  report  to  present  the  scheme  by 
which  the  claims  of  these  special  branches  have 
been  recognized  in  our  course  of  study  without 

(9) 


*10    "  '"  "NATURAL*  fcrfENC'E    IN    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

compromising  the  thoroughness  of  the  regular 
instruction  in  the  conventional  rudiments  above 
named. 

It  was  clearly  seen  that  the  problem  demanded 
an  introduction  of  a  popular  course  of  instruction 
in  natural  science  in  such  a  way  as  to  react  bene- 
ficially not  only  upon  the  pupil's  progress  in  the 
regular  course,  but  also  upon  the  teacher's  methods 
and  practical  skill  in  imparting  information. 

NATURAL    SCIENCE    AS    AN     INSTRUMENT    OF 
MODERN    CIVILIZATION 

Granting  the  importance  of  natural  science  as 
furnishing  the  theoretical  basis  of  productive  indus- 
try and  the  consequent  elevation  of  the  masses  of 
all  the  people  by  means  of  wealth  created  thereby, 
the  first  question  in  making  a  course  of  study 
was  to  bring  before  the  mind  the  entire  field  in 
classified  form.  The  obvious  division  into  Physics 
and  Natural  History — the  former  including  the 
department  that  deals  with  elements  in  their 
mathematical  relations,  and  the  latter  including 
the  descriptive  treatment  of  the  world  as  it  exists 
in  multiplicity  and  variety  of  special  existences — 
suggests  at  once  two  compendious  treatisies  long  in 


DOMAIN   OF   NATURAL   SCIENCE  11 

use  in  our  higher  schools :  Natural  Philosophy, 
furnishing  the  outline  of  Physics ;  and  Physical 
Geography,  furnishing  a  similar  outline  of  Natural 
History.  Again,  Physics  in  its  broadest  accepta- 
tion divides  into  a  science  of  the  movement  of 
masses  and  that  of  molecular  motion.  Chemistry 
thus  forms  a  kind  of  transition  to  Natural  History. 
Natural  History,  again,  treats  the  world  as  organic : 
first  the  process  of  the  elements,  including  the 
geological  'and  meteorological  processes  (taken  in 
their  widest  compass) ;  second  the  plant,  and  third 
the  animal. 

THE   COMPASS   OF   NATURAL   SCIENCE 

Having  thus  mapped  out  the  domain  of  natural 
science  so  that  our  course  of  study  shall  not  arbi- 
trarily adopt  one  or  more  provinces  to  the  neglect 
of  others  equally  important,  the  next  problem  was 
to  ascertain  what  phases  of  these  several  depart- 
ments are  suitable  for  popular  exposition  and  are 
easily  ill n  st.ral.ftd  Ascertaining  this,  it  became 
necessary  to  sketch  out  the  course  in  such  a  way 
as  to  make  several  complete  circuits  during  the 
seven  years  of  the  district  school  course.  The  lowest 
one  should  seize  certain  striking  features  in  each 


12  NATURAL  SCIENCE   IN    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

department — making  a  strong  impression  and  silent- 
ly determining  the  mind  to  reflection  and  observa- 
tion in  the  domain  of  Natural  Science.  The  second 
course  must  travel  round  in  the  same  path,  but 
more  s^gtejnMIcalry~a^d  in  detail.  The  third  one, 
still  deepening  and  generalizing  the  ideas  of  the 
pupil,  would  make  the  effects  permanent.  Three 
courses  were  fixed  upon  for  this  reason.  The  seven 
years  of  the  district  school  course  thus  allowed  three 
years  each  to  be  given  to  the  first  and  second  course, 
and  two  years  for  the  third.  Inasmuch  as  the 
subjects  were  taken  up  with  a  considerable  degree 
of  scientific  strictness  in  the  High  School,  the  courses 
of  study  in  natural  sciences  would  now  extend  from 
the  commencement  in  the  primary  schools  to  the 
last  year  of  the  High  School.  A  pupil,  coming 
into  any  grade  in  the  schools  and  remaining  three 
years,  would  know  something  of  each  of  the  great 
departments  of  Nature. 

THE  ORDER  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN   NATURAL  SCIENCE 

The  first  year,  lowest  grade,  in  the  schools  began 
with  lessons  on  the  plant ;  the  second  year  was 
taken  up  with  animals,  and  especially  the  structure 
of  the  human  body  ;  while  the  third  year  initiated 


'ORDER  AND  METHOD  13 

the  pupils  into  physical  forces  in  various  familiar 
applications,  and  made  some  progress  in  considering 
the  geological  and  meteorological  elements,  such  as 
earth,  air,  fire,  and  water.  In  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
.sixth  years  the  course  took  a  more  practical  turn. 
While  in  the  first  three  years  it  had  dealt  chiefly 
with  the  rationale  of  the  child's  playthings  and 
such  phenomena  as  excited  his  astonishment,  in  the 
second  course  he  wTas  to  learn  to  understand  what 
is  useful  to  man  in  these  departments.  In  the  sixth 
and  seventh  years  the  maturity  of  the  pupil  allows 
him  to  investigate  with  some  degree  of  scientific 
interest,  and  hence  the  more  general  form  is 
.adopted. 

METHOD   OF   TEACHING   NATURAL   SCIENCE 

The  important  question  to  be  settled  was  how 
to  bring  in  these  lessons  so  as  not  to  distract  and 
dissipate  the  attention  of  teacher  and  pupil  from 
other  work.  Fatal  dissipation  of  energies  follows 
from  undertaking  too  many  subjects  at  a  time.  If 
the  teacher  has  to  pass  daily  from  arithmetic  to  a 
lesson  on  natural  science,  it  is  likely  that  one  or 
both  these  lessons  will  suffer.  Accordingly,  in- 
stead of  introducing  these  lessons  daily,  they  were 


14  NATURAL   SCIENCE   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

confined  to  one  afternoon  of  each  week,  and  sufficient 
time  given  to  each  lesson  to  allow  a  deep  and  last- 
ing impression  to  be  made.  Whereas,  in  ordinary 
lessons  the  pupil  is  required  to  be  so  intensely 
active  that  he  cannot  sustain  the  exertion  for 
more  than  thirty  minutes,  in  the  natural  science 
lesson  he  is  to  give  his  attention  for  one  hour  ;  but 
the  teacher  is  so  to  vary  the  lesson  by  lecture,  ex- 
periment, reading  interesting  descriptions,  conversa- 
tion with  the  pupils  on  their  experience,  that  the  class 
shall  be  able  to  do  this  without  excessive  fatigue. 
By  this  arrangement  each  lesson  becomes  for  the 
teacher  a  practical  experiment  in  the  art  of  instruc- 
tion ;  and  when  the  pupils  are  allowed  to  become 
listless,  the  teacher  sees  her  inefficiency  portrayed 
before  her  and  must  make  greater  effort  next  time. 
It  seems  to  me  that  this  phase  of  the  subject — its 
value  to  the  teacher — is  worth  quite  as  much  as  the 
immediate  value  of  these  lessons  to  the  pupil.  I  do 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  he  gains  from  week  to 
week  an  impression  that  deepens  into  practical 
scientific  thought  in  after  years.  But  the  teacher  is 
led  to  study  and  thoroughly  prepare  herself,  and 
then  in  that  lesson  she  is  led  to  probe  in  a  freer 
manner  than  ordinary  the  miscellaneous  fund  of 


REFLEX  VALUE  ON  THE  TEACHER       15 

experience  possessed  by  the  individuals  of  her 
class ;  thus  she  cannot  fail  to  find  new  means  of 
getting  hold  of  pupils  in  each  of  the  regular 
branches  of  the  daily  course.  She  will  find  herself 
getting  more  and  more  emancipated  from  the 
slavish  use  of  the  text-book,  and  able  to  stand  before 
her  class  with  a  consciousness  of  her  strength  and 
ability  to  draw  out  the  resources  of  each  and  all  of 
her  pupils  and  combine  the  same  into  one  result. 

Thus  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  introduce  the 
study  of  the  sciences  with  all  their  infinitude  of 
detail,  so  as  to  act  as  a  stimulant  on  the  regular 
course,  as  regards  both  teacher  and  pupil.  It  is 
thought  that  the  pupil  will  receive  even  more 
benefit  indirectly  through  the  increased  efficiency 
of  the  daily  instruction  than  from  the  weekly 
lessons,  and  yet  that  these  lessons  themselves  will 
be  far  more  effective  than  if  given  in  short  object- 
lessons  of  fifteen  minutes  per  day. 

The  details  of  instruction  and  of  the  course, 
together  with  a  synoptic  view  of  it,  are  given  in 
the  appendix  of  the  report.*  I  insert  here  my 
special  report  to  the  Board  on  the  subject,  in 
order  to  present  the  other  phases  of  the  subject, 

*  In  this  edition  on  pp.  28  to  46. 


16  NATURAL   SCIENCE   IN   PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

not   already  commented  on   in   the   remarks  just 
made. 

SPECIAL  REPORT  TO  THE  BOARD 

GENTLEMEN, — Inasmuch  as  the  first  half-quarter 
of  the  present  scholastic  year  has  sufficed  to  get  our 
schools  into  fair  running  order,  and  to  lay  out  the 
plan  of  a  new  system  of  school  organization  which 
promises  to  furnish  a  frame-work  on  which  the 
schools  under  your  charge  may  grow  to  an  indefinite 
extent,  the  occasion  seems  to  be  auspicious  for  the 
consideration  of  certain  matters  relating  to  the 
course  of  study  and  the  methods  of  instruction  to  be 
followed  by  the  pupils  and  teachers. 

That  these  are  great  and   weighty   matters   in 

.}  education   every  educator  knows  well,  and   none 

1    better  than  the  members  of  your  honorable  body, 

as  is  manifest  by  the  interest  shown  here  from  time 

to  time  in   securing  the  best  text-books  and   the 

introduction   of  the  most  important   branches   of 

study  into  our  course. 

I  therefore  beg  leave  to  offer  the  following  re- 
marks and  suggestions  for  your  approval,  and  for 
adoption  in  case  of  approval  : 

I.  And  first  it  will  be  conceded,  I  think,  that 
we  cannot  teach  everything  in  the  short  period 


LIMITATION    OF    SUBJECTS  17 

devoted  for  schooling.  Even  were  the  period  of 
schooling  much  longer  than  it  really  is,  there  are 
many  things  learned  much  better  out  of  school  than 
in  it — many  things  learned  much  better  at  home, 
or  in  the  field  or  workshop  than  in  a  school-room. 
But  with  our  short  school  period,  lasting  on  the 
average  for  five  years  with  us  in  the  city,  and  about 
three  years,  more  or  less,  in  the  country,  there  is  the 
utmost  need  of  the  most  careful  selection  of  what  is 
essential.  The  course  of  study  must  contain  only 
what  the  pupil  is  not  likely  to  pick  up  from  inter- 
course with  the  family  circle,  with  his  fellow  play- 
mates, or  with  his  fellow  workmen.  More  than  this, 
it  must  contain  only  such  matters  as  have  a  general 
theoretic  bearing  on  the  world  in  which  he  lives, 
and  the  institutions  and  character  of  the  human 
species  of  which  the  pupil  is  an  individual. 

II.  It  is  clear  then,  that  the  school  must  furnish 
the  pupil  theoretical  insight.  Here  is  a  common 
ground,  and  it  is  practical  to  give  the  pupil  a  knowl- 
edge of  general  elements  which  he  may  apply  in 
after  life  to  any  one  of  the  many  trades  or  profes- 
sions. Every  boy  and  girl  will  find  a  knpwledge  of 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography  useful 
in  any  sphere  of  life  that  either  he  or  she  may  be 


18  NATURAL   SCIENCE   IN    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

called  to  fill.  Whatever  occupation  they  may  fol- 
low, these  branches  will  assist  them.  And  what  is 
said  of  these  elementary  branches  is  likewise  true  of 
the  habits  of  character  formed  in  a  well-disciplined 
school,  such  as  order,  neatness,  cleanliness,  earnest- 
ness, industry,  punctuality,  self-respect,  self-control, 
obedience  to  rule,  kindness,  forbearance,  courtesy, 
considerateness,  affability  and  politeness,  sympathy 
and  love. 

III.  I  do  not  think  there  is  much  ground  for 
dispute  as  to  the  order  for  these  elementary  studies. 
Reading  comes  first,  for  by  it  the  pupil  becomes  able 
to  pursue  independent  study,  and  thus  to   add  to 
what   he  receives  orally  from  his  teacher.     Arith- 
metic may  begii*  almost  as  early  as  reading,  and 
writing  should  not  be  delayed  at  all.     Geography 
should  begin  as  soon  as  the  pupil  learns  to  read 
with  some  facility.     Compared  with  other  branches, 
these  simplest  elements  are  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant, and  nothing  should  interfere  with  their  most 
speedy  acquisition.     They  are  in   themselves  the 
tools  which  assist  in  acquiring  all  other  knowledge. 

IV.  Of  man's  instruments  the  most  wonderful 
is  language.     His  whole  rational  existence  depends 
upon  it.     Some  special  study  of  the  structure   of 


ORDER    OP    SUBJECTS  Ifr 

this  wonderful  instrumentality  has  been  found 
essential  in  all  systems  of  education.  Hence,  we 
place  the  study  of  grammar  next  in  importance 
after  the  four  elements.  History  well  succeeds  gram- 
mar, for  grammar  prepares  the  way  for  it  by  analyz- 
ing the  structure  of  the  human  mind,  as  exhibited 
and  mirrored  in  language.  How  the  human  char- 
acter unfolds  in  time  is  shown  in  history.  Knowl- 
edge of  men  is  more  important  than  knowledge  of 
things,  as  we  all  find  when  we  grow  up  and  try  to 
succeed  in  life.  We  learn  that  we  can  do  nothing 
nor  achieve  anything  without  the  aid  and  consent 
of  our  fellow  men.  We  must,  therefore,  understand 
the  springs  and  motives  of  human  action,  both  the 
permanent  ones  and  the  ones  that  control  tem- 
porarily. 

V.  Above  and  beyond  these  just-named  studies, 
which  form  a  complete  elementary  course,  such  as 
has  been  wisely  laid  down  by  your  rules  as  consti- 
tuting the  course  of  study  for  the  district  schools 
— above  and  beyond  these  follows  the  study  of 
the  sciences,  of  the  higher  mathematics,  of  those- 
languages  from  which  our  own  is  derived  or  which 
are  kindred  to  it,  and  the  literature  thereof.  These 
studies  in  their  proper  development  form  the  higher- 


20  NATURAL    SCIENCE    IX    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

course  of  study,  and  are  commenced  in  the  high 
school. 

VI.  Now  arises  the  important  question  :     Should 
any  or  all  of  these  higher  studies  he  introduced  into 
the  elementary  course?     It  is  clear  that  in  their 
proper  form  they  cannot.     The  study   of  foreign 
language  by  its  structure  ought  to  be  preceded  by 
some  study  of  the  native  tongue.     The  study  of  the 
higher  mathematics  ought  to  be  preceded  by  that  of 
arithmetic ;  so  literature  cannot  be   well   studied 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  geography, 
history  and  grammar,  to  say  nothing  of  reading  and 
writing. 

VII.  The  sciences  are  twofold  :  the  human,  i.  e., 
social    and    political    sciences,    including   political 
economy,  pedagogy  and  the  like,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  natural  sciences   on  the   other.     The  human 
sciences  require  the  highest  maturity  of  thought  for 
their  mastery.     The  natural   sciences,    which   are 
divided  into  physics  (including  the  sciences  defining 
inorganic  and  organic  nature,  the  plant,  the  animal, 
and  man),  imply  first,  a  direct  application  of  mathe- 
matics, and  secondly,  an  indirect  application  of  the 
same  in  order  to  comprehend  the  working  of  the 
instruments  through  which  nature  is  observed  and 


METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION  21 

classified.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  so  far  as  com- 
plete study  and  exhaustive  survey  are  concerned,  the 
place  for  the  sciences  is  in  the  higher  course,  as  has 
been  determined  by  the  rules  of  the  Board. 

VIII.     But  there  is  a  further  question  to  settle  :     ) 
Can  we  not  give  those  children  who  study  five  years  / 
or  a  less  time  in  our  schools,  some  outlines  of  Physics  ( 
and  Natural  History,  which  will  be  of  great  service  to  ( 
them  in  after  life,  and  for  the  time  being  not  inter-   ] 
fere  seriously  with  the  prosecution  of  elementary 
studies  ? 

This  question  I  answer  in  the  affirmative,  on  the 
following  grounds  :  The  value  of  all  higher  studies 
is  two-fold,  one  as  giving  us  the  practical  mastery 
over  their  spheres  through  a  complete  comprehen- 
sion of  them  scientifically  ;  the  other  as  giving  us  a 
technical  mastery  over  their  spheres,  thereby  adding 
to  our  general  culture,  or  as  we  express  it,  "  general 
information  ".  For  instance,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
be  thoroughly  and  scientifically  an  astronomer  to 
read  with  pleasure  and  profit  the  third  volume  of 
Humboldt's  Cosmos,  or  indeed  most  writings  on  the 
subject  of  astronomy.  But  without  an  elementary 
course  of  some  sort  in  astronomy,  these  works  would 
be  sealed  books.  The  general  ideas  of  a  science  and 


2  NATURAL    SCIENCE    IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

its  mode  of  procedure  and  its  technics  may  be 
-acquired  with  little  labor ;  nay  it  may  be  a  mere 
pastime  to  do  this.  On  this  ground  we  may  intro- 
duce certain  outlines  of  Natural  History  and  Natural 
Philosophy  into  lower  grades  of  our  schools.  But 
it  must  be  introduced  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford 
relief  from  the  other  studies,  and  not  be  placed  in 
the  same  rank  with  them. 

IX.  To  illustrate  my  meaning,  and  with  a 
sincere  desire  to  furnish  what  seems  to  be  demanded 
lay  the  community,  I  have  sketched  the  following 
outlines,  following  therein  the  reference  books  you 
iiave  provided  for  your  teachers  and  with  special 
Tegard  to  the  resources  which  they  furnish.  These 
reference  books  are  Brando's  Encyclopedia,  Draper's 
Physiology,  Tate's  Natural  Philosophy,  Wells's 
Natural  Philosophy,  Hotz's  First  Lesson's  in  Phys- 
ics, Hooker's  Child's  Book  of  Nature,  Guyot's  Earth 
and  Man,  Calkins's  Primary  Object  Lessons.  Toil- 
man's  Eirst  Book  in  Botany,  Warren's  Physical 
Geography.  It  is  desirable,  in  my  opinion,  that 
you  may  add  to  these  a  set  of  colored  charts  illustra- 
tive of  the  anatomy  of  plants  and  animals — one  set 
for  each  school.  That  these  lessons  should  be  oral, 
conducted  by  description  and  illustration  on  the 


ORAL    VS.    TEXT    ]>><><  >K    METHOD  23 

part  of  the  teacher,  and  impressed  on  the  minds  of 
the  pupils  by  question  and  answer,  and  free  conver- 
sation, seems  to  me  the  proper  mode  by  all  means. 
And  inasmuch  as  this  exercise  should  serve  as  a 
kind  of  recreation  and  relaxation  from  the  regular 
course,  I  recommend  that  one  hour  be  set  apart  for 
it  on  each  Wednesday  afternoon  in  each  room  in 
the  district  schools. 

X.  [Here   follows   the   syllabus   of    lessons   in 
natural  science  given  on  pp.  28  to  35.] 

In  recommending  the  abovo  course,  I  would 
guard  especially  against  any  bad  effects  it  might 
have  in  diminishing  the  strictness  of  the  regular 
course  of  study  by  confining  it  to  one  hour  each 
week,  and  by  insisting  upon  the  use  of  the  purely 
oral  method  by  the  teacher. 

XI.  The  use  of  the  oral  method  in  this  case 
suggests  the  question:    What  is  the  difference  b€- 
tween  the  oral  and  the  so-called  text-book  method, 
and  what  are  the  merits  and  defects  of  each  ? 

In  the  former,  the  oral  method,  the  teacher  is  the 
general  source  of  information  ;  in  the  latter,  or  text- 
book method,  the  pupil  is  sent  to  the  book  for 
information.  In  neither  of  these  methods  is  cram- 
ming of  memory  with  mere  words  considered  to  be 


24  NATURAL   SCIENCE    IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

good  teaching,  and  yet  it  may  happen  under  a  poor 
teacher,  whether  the  oral  or  text-hook  method  is 
used. 

XII.  The  excellence  of  the  oral  method  should 
be  its  freedom  from  stiffness  and  pedantry,  and  its 
drawing  out  of  the  pupil  to  self-activity  in  a  natural 
manner.     Its  abuse  happens  when  in  the  hands  of 
a  poor  teacher  the  subject  is  presented  in  a  confused 
manner,  or  scientific  precision  is  lost  by  using  too 
familiar  language  or  by  too  much  pouring-in  with- 
out enough  exercising  the  pupil  by  making  him  do 
the  reciting  and  explanation. 

XIII.  The  excellence  of  the  text-book  method 
consists  in  getting  the  pupil   to  work   instead  of 
working  for  him ;  in  teaching  him  how  to  study 
for  himself  and   to  overcome  difficulties  by   him- 
self, instead  of  solving  them   for  him.     Unless  the 
teacher  knows   this  and  directs  all  his  efforts   to 
achieve  this  end,  very  great  abuses  creep  in.     Thus 
it  may  happen  that  the  teacher  requires  the  pupil 
merely  to  memorize  the  words  of  the  book,  and  does 
not  insist  upon  any    clear    understanding  of  it. 
Indolent  teachers   lean   upon    the    text-book   and 
neglect  to  perform  their  own  part  of  the  recitation. 

XIV.  But  in  the  hands  of  the  good  teacher  the 


xo  TJ:XT  BOOK  IN  KECITATION  _!•> 

text-book  is  a  powerful  instrument  to  secure  in- 
dustry, precision,  accuracy,  and  self-help  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil.  In  conducting  a  recitation  the 
teacher  should  : 

1st.  See  that  the  main  point  is  brought  out,  ex- 
plained and  illustrated  again  and  again  by  the 
different  pupils,  each  in  his  own  language,  and  the 
using  of  the  language  of  the  book  discouraged  in  so- 
far  as  it  tends  to  verbatim  or  parrot-like  recitation. 

2d.  The  teacher  should  himself  criticise,  and  call 
upon  his  pupils  to  criticise,  the  defects  made  in  the 
statements  by  each  pupil,  so  that  they  shall  acquire 
a  habit  of  alertness  in  noticing  inaccuracy  as  well  as 
lack  of  exhaustiveness  in  definition,  whether  in  oral 
statements  or  in  the  text-book  itself. 

3d.  The  lesson  should  in  all  cases  be  brought 
home  to  the  pupil's  own  experience,  and  his  own 
observation  and  reflection  made  to  verify  the  state- 
ment of  the  books. 

4th.  Every  recitation  should  connect  the  lessons 
of  to-day  to  the  lessons  already  recited,  and  the 
questions  awakened  in  to-day's  lessons  should  be 
skilfully  managed  to  arouse  interest  in  the  subject 
of  to-morrow's  lesson. 

5th.  The  good  teacher  always  notes  by  the  recita- 


26  NATURAL   SCIENCE   IN    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

tion  of  a  pupil  what  are  his  habits  of  study,  and  the 
recitation  is  the  place  where  had  habits  are  pointed 
out,  and  the  true  method  of  study  shown  and 
illustrated. 

XV.  I  think  all  will  agree  with  me  in  pronounc- 
ing the  recitation  conducted  in  the  manner  here 
described  effective  in  securing  the  ends  for  which 
you  have  established  the  rules  and  regulations  gov- 
erning the  teachers  in  the  public  schools.  I  have 
now  to  point  out  an  additional  regulation,  which,  if 
adopted  by  your  honorable  body,  will,  I  think,  lead 
to  the  correction  of  some  of  the  abuses  more  or  less 
prevalent  among  the  teachers  of  our  schools.  I 
refer  to  the  practice  of  some  of  our  teachers  of  using 
the  text-book  during  the  recitation  as  a  source  of 
information  from  which  to  draw  a  supply  for  their 
own  use  on  the  occasion,  thus  making  up  for  their 
own  lack  of  preparation.  From  this  practice  results 
the  greater  bulk  of  the  evils  complained  of  by 
intelligent  parents,  who  find  their  children  becom- 
ing mere  cramming  machines,  instead  of  intelligent 
investigators.  That  the  teacher  should  know  at 
least  as  much  of  the  lesson  as  the  pupil,  does  not 
need  statement.  Why,  then,  should  the  teacher 
have  recourse  to  the  text  while  the  pupil  is  debarred 


NO    TEXT    BOOK    IN    RECITATION  27 

from  it  ?  In  consideration  of  the  evils  arising  from 
this  source,  I  respectfully  suggest  the  adoption  of  a 
regulation  prohibiting  to  the  teacher  the  use  of  the 
text-book  in  the  recitation  whenever  the  pupil  is 
expected  to  recite  without  the  book ;  and  that  the 
teacher  be  recommended  to  use  a  syllabus  of  topics 
or  questions,  either  written  or  printed,  in  the  con- 
duct of  such  recitations. 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 


FIRST    YEAR    OR    GRADE 
PLANTS   OR   OUTLINE   OF   BOTANY 

First  Quarter.  Flowers,  their  structure,  color, 
perfume,  habit,  and  shapes.  Inasmuch  as  the 
pupils  of  this  grade  enter  school  in  the  early  fall  or 
spring,  their  first  quarter's  work  can  be  illustrated 
directly  from  the  garden. 

Second  Quarter.  Leaves,  fruits,  seeds  ;  shape,  usesr 
sap,  decay. 

Third  Quarter.  Buds,  roots,  their  purpose  ;  stalks 
and  trunks,  bark  of  plants,  wood. 

Fourth  Quarter.  Circulation  of  sap,  what  is  made 
from  sap,  sleep  of  plants,  etc.  Review  of  topics  of 
the  year. 

SECOND    YEAR    OR    GRADE 

ANIMALS,    OR   OUTLINES   OF    ZOOLOGY    AND 
PHYSIOLOGY 

First  Quarter.  Blood  ;  what  it  makes  ;  how  it  is 
made.  The  ground  ;  what  comes  from  it  as  food 

(28) 


COURSE   OF    INSTRUCTION  29 

for  animals  ;  stomach  and  teeth.  Circulation  of  the 
Tjlood. 

Second  Quarter.  Breathing ;  brain  and  nerves ; 
use  of  the  senses ;  seeing ;  protection  of  the  eyes ; 
hearing  ;  smell ;  taste  ;  touch  ;  the  hones  ;  muscles. 

Third  Quarter.  Brains  and  nerves  in  animals 
compared  with  those  in  man ;  limbs  of  animals, 
and  their  uses  ;  the  hand  in  man,  and  its  substitutes 
in  animals  ;  what  instruments  and  tools  animals 
possess  for  attack  and  defence. 

Fourth  Quarter.  Wings  and  fins;  clothing  of 
man  and  animals ;  wherein  man  is  superior  to 
animals  ;  intelligence  "of  animals  ;  sleep,  its  uses  ; 
death,  what  it  is.  Review  of  topics  for  the  year. 

THIRD    GRADE    OR  YEAR 
ELEMENTS   OF    PHYSICAL    NATURE 

First  Quarter.  Air  ;  wind  ;  flying  and  swimming 
compared  ;  pressure  of  the  air  ;  pumps  ;  barometer, 
air-pumps,  pop-guns ;  gases  distinguished  from 
liquids  ;  gun-powder. 

Second  Quarter.  Balloons  ;  bubbles  ;  heated  air  ; 
chimneys  ;  draft  and  ventilation ;  uses  of  water ; 
water  level ;  pressure  of  water  ;  attractions  in  solids 
and  liquids. 


30  NATURAL    SCIENCE    IN    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

Third  Quarter.  Water  in  the  air,  clouds,  snow, 
frost  and  ice ;  heat  and  cold  ;  communication  or 
conduction  of  heat ;  effects  of  heat ;  steam  ;  light ; 
color  ;  electricity  ;  magnetism. 

Fourth  Quarter.  Gravitation  ;  motion  of  the  earth  ; 
friction.  Review  of  the  year's  work. 

FOURTH    YEAR   OR   GRADE 
BOTANY    MORE   SYSTEMATICALLY   STUDIED 

First  Quarter.  Modes  of  studying  parts  of  PLANTS  ; 
leaf,  stem,  inflorescence,  flower,  root,  seed,  woody 
plants,  fruit,  illustrating  by  familiar  examples. 

Second  Quarter.  The  difference  in  species  of 
TREES  ;  their  habits,  place  of  growth  and  use  of 
man  ;  pine,  cedar,  willow,  oak,  beech,  maple,  wal- 
nut, hickory,  sycamore,  ash,  poplar,  birch  (what 
"  deciduous  "  and  "  evergreen  "  signify),  magnolia, 
live-oak,  honey-locust,  banyan,  laurel,  mosses. 

Third  Quarter.  FOOD  PLANTS  :  1.  Wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  rye,  Indian  corn,  rice.  2.  Potatoes,  yams, 
beets,  turnips,  onions,  beans,  peas.  3.  Apples, 
peaches,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  oranges,  bananas, 
lemons,  bread-fruit,  dates,  pine-apples,  figs,  grapes. 
4.  Sago,  tapioca,  sugar-cane,  cocoanut  palm  (its 
various  uses).  5.  Pepper,  cinnamon,  cloves,  nut- 


COURSE    OF    INSTRUCTION  31 

meg,  vanilla.     6.  Tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  mate.     7.  Ice- 
land moss. 

Fourth  Quarter.  PLANTS  USEFUL  IN  THE  ARTS  : 
1.  Indigo,  logwood.  2.  Olive  (oil),  flaxseed  (oil), 
pine,  turpentine,  rosin,  tar.  3.  Caoutchouc,  gutta 
percha.  MEDICINAL  PLANTS  AND  STIMULANTS  :  Sar- 
saparilla,  cinchona  (quinine),  aloe,  tobacco,  opium, 
rhubarb.  PLANTS  VALUABLE  FOR  CLOTHING  :  Cot- 
ton, flax,  hemp. 

FIFTH    YEAR    OR    GRADE 
ZOOLOGY,  PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE 

First  Quarter.  Classification  of  animals,  their 
differences  and  resemblances.  I.  VERTEBRATES  :  A. 
Mammals :  a.  orang-outang,  monkey ;  b.  bear,  cat, 
dog,  lion,  panther,  tiger,  cougar,  wolf,  leopard ;  c. 
kangaroo,  opossum  ;  d.  beaver,  squirrel,  rat,  mouse  ; 
e.  sloth,  ant-eater ;  /.  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopot- 
amus, horse,  hog ;  g.  camel,  llama,  camelopard,  deer, 
goat,  ox,  sheep  ;  h.  whale,  dolphin,  walrus,  porpoise, 
seal.  B.  Birds  :  a.  vulture,  eagle,  hawk,  owl ;  b. 
parrot,  woodpecker,  cuckoo,  toucan  ;  c.  lark,  robin, 
swallow,  sparrow,  mocking-bird ;  d.  domestic  fowl, 
quail,  pigeon,  peacock,  turkey,  partridge ;  e.  ostrich, 
stork,  crane,  duck,  swan,  penguin,  goose,  pelican. 


32  NATURAL    SCIENCE    IX    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

Second  Quarter.  Classification  of  animals  con- 
tinued. C.  Reptiles  :  a.  lizard,  crocodile,  allegator  ; 
b.  toad,  frog,  turtle ;  c.  rattlesnake,  boa -constrictor, 
python,  cobra.  D.  Fishes :  pike,  salmon,  cod, 
mackerel,  shad,  shark,  flying-fish,  cat-fish,  trout, 
herring,  sardine.  II.  MOLLUSCS  :  oyster,  clam,  pearl- 
oyster,  snail.  III.  ARTICULATES  :  lobster,  craw-fish, 
worm,  spider,  insect  (honey-bee,  silk-worm,  cochi- 
neal, fly,  wasp,  butterfly,  etc.).  IV.  RADIATES  : 
•corals,  animalcules. 

Second  Quarter.  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  :  1. 
Bones  (preservation  of  the  teeth) ;  2.  Skin  (its  mem- 
branes, pores,  perspiration,  cleanliness) ;  3.  flesh  (fat, 
muscles,  tendons) ;  4.  Circulation  of  blood  (veins, 
arteries,  the  heart) ;  5.  Breathing  (lungs,  effect  on 
the  blood) ;  6.  digestion  (chyme,  chyle,  food  and 
drink) ;  7.  nerves  (brain,  five  senses  and  how  to  use 
them)  ;  8.  Voluntary  and  involuntary  motion,  effect 
of  exercise ;  9.  Sleep,  disease,  death ;  10.  Proper 
and  improper  hygienic  habits  (eating,  drinking, 
sleeping,  exercise,  bathing,  sitting  in  a  draft  of  air, 
tight  lacing,  cramping  the  lungs,  breathing  pure  air, 
keeping  the  feet  warm  and  head  cool,  etc.) 

Third  Quarter.  PHYSICS  :  1.  Gravitation  and 
pressure  (weights,  pump,  barometer,  pendulum) ; 


COURSE    OF    INSTRUCTION  33 

2.  Cohesion  (glue,  paste,  mortar,  cement,  etc.);  3. 
Capillary  attraction  (lamp- wick,  sap,  sponge,  sugar, 
etc.) ;  4.  Mechanical  powers  (level,  pulley,  inclined 
plane,  wedge  and  screw- — friction).  5.  Heat  (sun, 
combustion,  friction,  effect  on  bodies,  steam,  ther- 
mometer, conduction,  clothing,  cooking,  etc.) ;  6. 
Light  (sources,  reflection,  looking-glass,  refraction, 
spectacles,  microscope,  prism,  telescope,  effect  on 
growing  bodies,  photograph) ;  7.  Electricity  (light- 
ning, sealing-wax  experiments,  etc.) ;  8.  Magnetism 
(mariner's  compass,  horse-shoe  magnet,  telegraph). 
Fourth  Quarter.  ASTRONOMY  :  1.  Stars  (some  idea 
of  size  and  distance( ;  2.  Solar  system ;  a.  sun 
(source  of  light  and  heat,  its  size,  spots) ;  b.  planets 
(their  relative  distances  from  the  sun ;  Venus  and 
Jupiter,  morning  and  evening  star  ;  Saturn  and  his 
rings);  c.  satellites  or  moons  (number  of  them) ;  d. 
comets ;  e.  orbits  (or  paths  of  planets,  moons,  and 
comets)  ;  /.  eclipses  (of  sun,  of  moon) ;  g.  seasons  ; 
,h.  phases  of  moon.  .... 

SIXTH   YEAR    OR    GRADE 
OUTLINES  OP   PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

First  Quarter.  GEOLOGY  :  Structure  of  land,  form 
of  continents,  islands,  mountains  and  valleys,  pla- 
teaus, plains,  volcanoes,  and  earthquakes. 


34  NATURAL  SCIENCE   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

Second  Quarter.  THE  WATER  :  Springs,  rivers, 
lakes,  the  ocean,  tides,  waves,  winds,  currents,  rela- 
tion to  commerce  and  climate. 

Third  Quarter.  METEOROLOGY  :  The  atmosphere, 
temperature,  the  winds,  moisture  of  atmosphere, 
dew,  fogs,  rain,  snow  and  hail,  climate,  electrical 
and  optical  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere. 

Fourth  Quarter.  ORGANIC  LIFE  :  Botany,  zoolo- 
gy, ethnography,  relation  of  plants,  animals  and 
men  to  their  place  of  abode. 

SEVENTH    YEAR   OR   GRADE 

OUTLINES   OP   NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY  (OR  PHYSICS),  AS. 
ILLUSTRATED    IN    FAMILIAR    OBJECTS 

First  Quarter.  Matter  and  its  properties :  force, 
molecular  forces,  gravitation  and  weight,  specific 
gravity,  centre  of  gravity,  motion,  action  and  re- 
action, compound  motion. 

Second  QuQ/rter.  Machinery,  friction,  strength  of 
materials,  use  of  materials  in  construction,  hydro- 
statics and  capillary  attraction,  hydraulics,  pneu- 
matics, acoustics. 

Third  Quarter.  Heat  and  its  sources,  communi- 
cation and  effects ;  steam  engine ;  warming  and 
ventilation  ;  meteorological  instruments,  thermome- 


COURSE    OF    INSTRUCTION  35 

ter ;  barometer,  hydrometer,  rain  gauge,  anemome- 
ter ;  classes  of  clouds  ;  classes  of  winds  ;  meteors  and 
aerolites  ;  aurora  borealis  ;  halos  ;  circulation  of  water 
through  the  processes  of  evaporation,  clouds,  rain, 
springs,  rivers,  ocean,  etc. 

Fourth  Quarter.  Light :  sources  ;  reflection  ;  pris- 
matic spectrum  ;  structure  of  the  eye  ;  optical  instru- 
ments, telescope,  microscope,  etc ;  electricity,  mag- 
netism ;  electro-magnetism ;  telegraph. 


ON  THE  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

1.  The  teacher  must  not  consider  herself  required 
to  go  over  all  the  topics  assigned  for  any  given 
quarter.     She  must  not  attempt  to  do  any   more 
than  she  can  do  in  a  proper  manner.     If  it  happens 
that  only  the  first  two  or  three  topics  are  all  that 
can  be  dealt  with  profitably,  the  teacher  must  not 
allow  herself  to  undertake  any  more. 

2.  In  case  the  teacher  finds  that  the  topics  of  any 
given  quarter  are  not  arranged  in  such  an  order 
that  she  can  take  them  up  to  the  best  advantage,  she 
is  at  liberty  to  change  that  order  ;  but  she  must  not 
proceed  to  the  work  of  a  new  quarter  or  to  any 
portion  of  it  until  she  has  first  given  ten  weekly 
lessons  on  the  quarter's  work  she  has  begun. 

3.  No  more  than  ten  weekly  lessons  should   be 
given  on  the  work  laid  down  for  a  quarter.     When 
these  have  been  given,  proceed  to  the  work  of  the 
next  quarter,  whether  the  topics  of  the  quarter  in 
hand  have  all  been  considered  or  only  a  very  small 

portion  of  them. 

(36) 


OX    THE    METHOD    OF    TEACHING  37 

REMARKS 

The  course  is  arranged  with  reference  to  method 
rather  than  quantity  or  exhaustiveness.  If  only 
one  topic  is  thoroughly  discussed  in  each  quarter  of 
the  first  year,  some  very  important  ideas  will  be 
gained  of  the  science  of  botany.  In  the  fourth  year 
of  the  course,  the  pupil  will  come  round  to  the  sub- 
ject again  and  can  deepen  his  insight  into  the 
methods  of  studying  the  world  of  plants,  learn  the 
general  outlines  of  classification  adopted,  and  train 
his  observing  powers.  When  he  comes  to  the  sixth 
year  of  the  course,  he  will  again  touch  upon  the 
subjects  in  such  a  manner  as  to  see  the  province  this 
subject  occupies  in  the  world  of  nature,  and  its  gen- 
eral bearings  upon  other  fields  of  investigation. 

The  question  will  be  asked  :  Why  not  reduce  the 
number  of  topics  under  a  given  subject  to  the  num- 
ber that  can  be  actually ,  discussed  by  the  teacher  ? 

The  answer  is :  (1)  A  selection  of  topics  from  a 
comparatively  full  enumeration  of  them  is  best  left 
to  the  individual  teacher.  (2)  The  exact  number  of 
topics  that  can  be  profitably  discussed  by  teachers 
will  vary  with  their  capacities  ;  moreover,  it  will  vary 
from  year  to  year  as  teachers  become  familiar  with 


38  KA1TKAL    fcriKXCE    IX    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

the  course  ;  hence  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  variety 
and  to  have  topics  enough  for  the  most  rapid 
classes.  (3)  It  is,  moreover,  important  to  keep 
constantly  before  the  teacher  a  full  outline  of  the 
subject,  so  as  to  prevent  the  (very  common)  tendency 
to  treat  a  theme  in  its  narrow  application  only  and 
to  omit  its  general  bearings. 

GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  COURSE 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  seven  years'  course 
there  is  a  spiral  movement,  or  recurrence  of  the 
same  topics  :  (1)  The  subjects  of  Natural  Science,  (a) 
the  plant,  (b)  the  animal,  (c)  the  physical  elements 
and  mechanical  powers — constitute  a  primary  course 
of  three  years  ;  so  that  even  those  who  receive  the 
minimum  of  school  education  shall  acquire  some 
insight  into  the  elements  and  instrumentalities 
which  play  so  important  a  part  in  the  industrial 
age  in  which  they  live.  (2)  In  the  fourth  and  fifth 
years  these  subjects  of  Natural  Science  are  all  taken 
up  again  in  a  second  course  and  much  more  scientific- 
ally developed  :  (a)  Botany,  its  method  and  practical 
application ;  (b)  Zoology  and  Human  Physiology  ; 
(c)  motion  and  force  in  masses,  in  particles,  and  as 
applied  in  the  mechanical  powers ;  (d)  Astronomy 
(forming  a  transition  to  the  grammar-school  course 


ON  THE  METHOD  OF  TEACHING        39 

in  Physical  Geography).  Five  years  is  the  average 
attendance  in  our  schools ;  hence  the  average  pupil 
will  get  two  courses  in  Natural  Science.  (3)  In  the 
sixth  and  seventh  years  of  the  district  school  a  third 
course  in  Natural  Science  is  given,  in  which  begin 
to  appear  more  clearly  in  outline  the  several  sciences. 

(a)  Under    Natural    History    or    organic  nature : 
Geology,  Meteorology,  Botany,  Zoology,  Ethnology. 

(b)  Under  Natural  Philosophy,  or  Physics  :  Matter, 
force  and  motion,  machinery,  molecular  forces  and 
instruments  involving  their  application. 

/4.  In  teaching  Natural  Science  it  is  of  the  great- 
est importance  to  select  typical  objects  or  facts  ;  i.  e., 
objects  or  phenomena  that  are  types  of  a  large  class 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they  manifest  all  of  the 
chief  properties  or  attributes  common  to  the  other 
individuals  of  the  class,  and  at  the  same  time  mani- 
fest them  in  the  most  obvious  manner.  It  would 
not  do,  for  instance,  to  select  an  object  in  which  the 
properties  to  be  illustrated  were  not  well  developed, 
nor  an  object  with  which  the  pupils  were  not 
familiar.  J) 

5.  Every  lesson  should  be  given  in  such  a  way  as 
to  draw  out  the  perceptive  powers  of  the  pupil  by 
leading  him  to  reflect  on  what  he  sees,  or  to  analyze 


40  NATURAL  SCIENCE  IN    PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

the  object  before  him.  It  is,  at  first  thought,  strange 
— although  it  is  true — that  powers  of  observation  are 
to  be  strengthened  only  by  teaching  the  pupil  to 
think  upon  what  he  sees.  The  process  is  one  of 
division  (analysis)  and  classification,  and,  secondly, 
of  tracing  causal  relations ;  hence  the  questions  most 
frequent  are :  "  What  qualities  or  properties  has  this 
obj  ect  (exhibiting  the  same)  ?  "What  separate  actions 
or  movements  form  the  steps  or  stages  in  a  process  ? 
What  other  objects  and  processes  have  the  same 
(classification)?  What  relation  of  this  object  or 
phenomenon  to  others,  whether  as  to  cause  and 
effect  or  as  to  means  and  end  ?  " 

6.  How  to  conduct  a  lesson :  (a)  Prepare  yourself 
beforehand  on  the  subject  of  the  lesson  of  the  week, 
fixing  in  your  mind  exactly  what  subjects  you  will 
bring  up,  just  what  definitions  and  illustrations  you 
will  give  or  draw  out  of  the  class.  All  must  be 
marked  or  written  down  in  the  form  of  a  synopsis. 
The  blackboard  is  the  most  valuable  appliance  in 
oral  lessons ;  on  it  should  be  written  the  technical 
words  discussed,  the  classification  of  the  knowledge 
brought  out  in  the  recitation,  and,  whenever  possible^ 
illustrative  drawings,  (b)  Pains  should  be  taken 
to  select  passages  from  the  reference  book  or  from 


ON  THE  METHOD  OF  TEACHING        41 

other  books  illustrative  of  the  subject  under  discus- 
sion, to  be  read  to  the  class  with  explanation  and 
conversation,  (c)  Whenever  the  subject  is  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  allow  of  it,  the  teacher  should  bring 
in  real  objects  illustrative  of  it  and  encourage  the 
same,  (d)  But  more  stress  should  be  laid  on  a 
direct  appeal  to  their  experience,  encouraging  them 
to  describe  what  they  have  seen  and  heard,  arous- 
ing habits  of  reflection,  enabling  the  pupil  to  acquire 
a  good  command  of  language,  (e)  Great  care  must 
be  taken  by  the  teacher  not  to  burden  the  pupil 
with  too  many  technical  phrases  at  a  time,  nor  to 
fall  into  the  opposite  error  of  using  only  the  loose 
common  vocabulary  of  ordinary  life,  which  lacks 
scientific  precision. 

7.  How  to  use  the  Refwence  Books. 

(a)  In  the  first  course,  extending  through  the 
seventh,  sixth  and  fifth  grades,  Hooker's  Child's  Book 
of  Nature  should  be  followed  for  the  most  part,  with 
such  hints  as  to  method  as  are  to  be  gained  from  a 
study  of  Calkins's  Primary  Object  Lessons.  SEVENTH 
GRADE.  First  quarter :  Study  and  use  such  portions 
of  the  first  ten  chapters  of  Hooker's  Part  I.  as  you 
can  make  available.  Second  quarter :  Chapters  xi 
to  xxi  of  the  same  book.  Third  quarter :  Chapters 


42  NATURAL   SCIENCE   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


to  xxvu.  Fourth  quarter  :  Chapters  xxix  to 
xxxin.  SIXTH  GRADE.  First  quarter  :  Chapters  i 
to  vn  of  Hooker's  Part  II.  Second  quarter  :  Chap- 
ters vin  to  xvin.  Third  quarter  :  Chapters  xix  to 
xxv.  Fourth  quarter:  Chapters  xxvi  to  xxxm. 
FIFTH  GRADE.  First  quarter:  Chapters  i  to  x  of 
Hooker's  Part  III.  Second  quarter  :  Chapters  xi  to 
xvin.  Third  quarter  :  Chapters  xix  to  xxxi.  Fourth 
quarter  :  Chapters  xxxn  to  xxxv.  Calkins's  Object 
Lessons,  pp.  15  to  50,  should  be  studied  in  the 
seventh  grade  ;  pp.  401  to  431  will  be  of  great  service 
in  the  sixth  grade  ;  and  the  same  book,  pp.  139  to 
190  and  pp.  339  to  400,  will  be  of  equal  service  in 
the  fifth  grade. 

(b)  In  the  second  course,  extending  through  the 
Jourth  and  third  grades,  ^foumans's  First  Book  in 
Botany  should  be  studied  for  method  and  material 
for  the  lessons  given  in  the  first  quarter  of  the 
FOURTH  GRADED  Only  a  few  selections  can  be 
made  on  account  of  lack  of  time,  but  these  should 
be  of  the  most  suggestive  order.  For  secondt  third 
and  fourth  quarters  of  the  FOURTH  GRADE,  Warren's 
Physical  Geography  will  furnish  classification,  de- 
scription and  facts  (pp.  70  to  78,  new  edition). 
THIRD  GRADE.  First  quarter:  Warren's  Physical 


ON  THE  METHOD  OF  TEACHING        43 

Geography,  pp.  78  to  85.  Second  quarter :  Refer  to 
Draper's  Physiology  for  information ;  use  "  Sylla- 
bus of  Physiology  "  for  further  suggestions.  Third 
quarter :  Use  Hotze's  First  Lessons  in  Physics  for 
method,  and  Wells's  Natural  Philosophy  for  infor- 
mation. Fourth  quarter:  Use  Warren's  Physical 
Geography,  pp.  5  to  8,  and  Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks 
in  Astronomy. 

(c)  In  the  third  course,  extending  through  the 
second  and.  first  grades,  Warren's  Physical  Geography 
should  be  used  for  the  first  year,  and  Wells's 
Natural  Philosophy  for  the  second  year.  Constant 
reference  should  be  made  to  Tate's  Natural  Philoso- 
phy, Brande's  Dictionary,  and  other  books.  The 
Public  School  Library  is  free  to  teachers  as  a  Refer- 
ence Library.  A  set  of  colored  illustration-charts  is 
given  to  each  school ;  many  things  can  be  best 
taught  by  means  of  charts. 

8.  Although  instruction  in  Natural  Science  is 
limited  to  one  hour  per  week,  yet  it  is  expected  that 
what  is  taught  in  these  lessons  will  be  referred  to 
frequently  in  the  regular  Course  of  Study.  When- 
ever, for  instance,  any  of  the  subjects  treated  in 
this  course  of  instruction  come  up  in  teaching  the 
other  branches,  an  exposition  of  their  scientific 


44  NATURAL    SCIENCE    IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

phases  should  be  required  of  the  pupils.  This  will 
apply  to  the  subject  of  Geography  more  than  to  the 
others.  Arithmetic,  History,  and  the  Reading  les- 
son will  occasionally  furnish  references  to  one  or 
more  provinces  here  mapped  out. 

9.  In  connection  with  the  Geography,  History r 
and  Grammar  lessons  a  study  of  MAN  should  be 
carried  on  parallel  to  the  study  of  material  nature 
of  the  weekly  oral  lessons.  The  outlines  of  study 
embrace :  1st.  Physiology,  or  science  of  man  as 
a  body ;  this  comes  under  Natural  Science ;  £dr 
Ethnology,  or  study  of  man  as  conditioned  in 
development  by  his  surroundings,  climate,  race, 
etc.;  3d,  Wants  and  necessities  of  food,  clothing, 
shelter,  and  the  relation  of  these  to  the  world, 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral ;  fah,  Language  and 
its  divisions  and  structure ;  5ih,  States  of  Society  ; 
6th,  Employments  and  occupations ;  7th,  Govern- 
ment;  8th,  Religions. 

10.  Compositions  should  be   written   subsequent 
to  the  oral  lessons,  on  the  topics  discussed.     They 
should  be  short  and  to  the  point,  and  always  in  the 
pupil's  own  words. 

11.  Resume.     To  name  once  more    in    a   brief 


ON  THE  METHOD  OP  TEACHING        45 

"manner  the  cardinal  points  to  be  kept  in  mind  con- 
stantly by  the  teacher : 

(a)  Take  up  only  so  many  of  the  topics  laid  down 
for  any  given  quarter  as  can  be  discussed  thorough- 
ly without  overburdening  the  pupil's  memory  or 
distracting  his  power  of  attention. 

(b)  Never  take  up  a  topic  that  you  are  unable  to 
explain  and  illustrate  so  clearly  as  to  make  the 
pupil  understand  it ;  avoid  all  phases  of  the  subject 
that  will  tend  to  confuse  rather  than  enlighten. 

(c)  Spend  only  ten  weeks  on  the  work  of  a  given 
quarter,  whether  you  do  little  or  much  in  it ;  pro- 
seed  then  to  the  topics  of  the  next  quarter. 

(d)  Relieve  the  hour's  work  by  as  much  variety 
as  possible  :  first,  reading  and  explaining  something 
adapted  to  the  capacity  of  your  pupils ;  secondly, 
drawing  out  in  conversational  manner  the  experience 
and  information  which  your  scholars  already  possess 
on  the  subject ;  thirdly,  exhibiting  the  visible  ob- 
jects which  you  or  the  pupils  have  brought  to 
illustrate  the  lesson,  and  requiring  the  pupils  to 
notice  and  name  the  properties,  qualities,  parts,  and 
attributes ;  fourthly,  never  omitting  to  show  by  a 


46  NATURAL   SCIENCE   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

synopsis  on  the  blackboard  what  has  been  discussed 
in  the  lesson,  its  classification  and  relation. 

(e)  Require  short  weekly  compositions  of  the 
pupils  above  the  fifth  grade,  in  which  they  express 
in  their  own  language  their  ideas  on  the  subjects 
treated  in  the  oral  lessons. 


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